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TRANSCRITO DE CRANIAL VARIATION IN MAN - A STUDY BY MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF PATTERNS OF DIFFERENCE AMONG RECENT HUMAN POPULATIONS. WILLIAM WHITE HOWELLS - PEABODY MUSEUM OF ARCHAELOGY AND ETHNOLOGY - HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSSET, 1973. 259 pp.
INSTRUMENTS
These are given Roman numerals,
so that they may be referred to specifically in measurement
definitions without possibility of confusion with the arabic numerals used
by Martin or others to identify measurements. No attempt has been made
to follow Martin's own numbering system for instruments, because:
1. The above possibility of confusion exists
2. Few instruments used here were designated formally
by him, and vice versa
3. Martin was inconsistent in his numbering, having one
set of numbers for instruments used on the living subject, some of which
numbers were applied to different instruments used in osteology.
Ia Spreading caliper
The standard spreading calipers, Hermann, GPM (Gneupel),
etc. As Martin points out, for craniology relatively pointed
ends are needed.
IIa Sliding caliper, dial - Helios
Helios 6" caliper with adjustable dial (reading to 1/20
millimeter), RUR 1068 C. Should be ordered fitted with needles in
short arms and standard long arms; then modified as follows: blunt the
needles slightly; bevel the edges of the long arms slightly and grind the
ends of these down to flattish points. Remember that, as with other calipers,
the exact measuremente is between the inside surfaces of the points.
This caliper is easy to use, is extremely accurate, and
prevents reading errors far better than the standard (since the arm reads
in whole centimeters and the dial to numbered milimeters). Available from
karl Neise, 56-02 Roosevelt Ave., Woodside, N. Y. 11377.
IIb Sliding caliper, small, inside
Central Scientific Co. 6" calipers, with vernier reading
to 1/10 mm. Smaller than standard but useful for smaller measurements and
objects. Smaller jaws for inside measurements; larger jaws must be reground
to form sharper tips.
Available from Central Scientific Co., 160 Washington
Street, Somerville, Mass. 02144.
IIIa Coordinate caliper
The standard form, e.g., GPM #12, with straight arms
(cf. Martin, fig. 271). The instrument suplied by GPM is light and accurate.
IIIb Coordinate caliper-radiometer
This is the large Aichel caliper (see Martin, p. 592),
supplied by GPM as #13. It is converted into a radiometer, for reading
distances from the transmeatal axis, by having the ends fitted with shoes
carrying bullet-shaped points (i.e., parabolic in longitudinal cross section)
increasing to a maximum diameter of 4 mm. These can be inserted into the
meatus in such a way as to turn easily while being firmly fixed, so as
automatically to find the center of the largest circle which will fit the
meatus in a plane parallel to the median plane of the skull. These points
are made so that their mutual central axis is the zero reading for the
coordinate arm.
IIIc Coordinate caliper - simometer
This is made on a design shown me by. G. Debets, in which
the jaws are turned in near their extremities, so that the two points of
the lateral arms and that of the coordinate arm may all meet at a single
zero point (see Alekseev and Debets 1964, p. 23). Both measuring bars are
supplied with vernier scales for reading to 1/10 mm, for fine readings
of projections of the nasal bones. (The standard coordinate caliper, IIIa,
with straight arms, cannot be used in this way.) The calipers may be used
for all measurements of facial projection as well. Cost of construction
about $130.
IIId Coordinate caliper-palatometer
In this small caliper both of the lateral arms are movable,
being extended by screws on either side of the central housing which also
carries the coordinate arm. Readings are not reliable if either lateral
arm is extended beyond the point at which its non-working end is flush
with the housing.
Martin, R. 1928 Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, 2nd edition,
vol. 2.
GPM Anthropological Instruments. Available from Siber
Precision Inc., 450 Barell Ave., Carlstadt, New Jersey, 07072.
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SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT DEFINITIONS
Lists of definitions have appeared many times, in monographs
or in textbooks, which generally simply credit some prior authority. In
another class are those lists which are accompanied by special critical
comment, and are meant to contribute to precision and standardization,
or to represent the usage of a working group, or both. There were, of course,
a number of such works in the early days (e.g., Broca, von Török),
on which later ones were based; of these later ones the following have
been especially influential and will be referred to for comparisons (they
also happen to represent major aspects of German, French, British, and
American usage):
M Martin, 1928
V Vallois, 1965
BR Broca, 1875
MH Monaco Agreement of 1906, G. Papillaut,
editor, translated, and in some instances reinterpreted, by Hrdlicka 1920.
B Biometric Laboratory, based on the
Frankfurter Verständigung of 1882, and developed in or about 1895.
This last, because of is importance, calls for special
discussion. The Biometric group, under Pearson, adopted the Frankfort Agreement
as a method then actually in use (though later neglected), in which German
and French workers had already published a large mass of original measurements.
By the Biometric group it was extended, and also in part modified, at this
time since "it was essential to maintain the modified measurements throughout
all the work done in the laboratory" (Pearson and Davin
1928, p. 333.) This was a particular effort for consistency by a
major group; nevertheless, so far as I know, no formal list of the Laboratory's
definitions, in full, was ever published. Instead, in a series of about
20 studies over 40 years or more, individual writers in Biometrika published
cursory lists of a page or two (or else merely said that the techniques
of the Laboratory had been followed), in which the language is not uniform
and doubt is possible in some cases as to just what the measurement is.
This can be cleared up only by inference, and by reading a number of such
lists, including that of Trevor (1950), which probably is the nearest
approach to a formal list from a member of the school. Examples of this
difficulty will be seen below, under glabello-occipital length and maximum
breadth.
In the case of each measurement in the following list,
those measurements in the other lists which appear to be synonymous
with it are noted. These are accepted in some cases when there is no reason
to think that a real difference exists: e.g., when nose height is measured
to one side of the pyriform aperture only, rather than being averaged from
both; but not the measurement to the middle of a line connecting the two
lowest points, an equivalence accepted by Hrdlicka in his rendition of
the Monaco Agreement (which makes no such suggestion in the original).
The measurement definitions are preceded by a list of
landmark definitions. This is a selective list, comprising only those landmarks
which must be defined with care for the purposes of this set of measurements,
and the definitions are framed primarily with such purposes in mind,
and only secondarily in conformity with previous definitions. The code
names shown are also not exactly standard; this is explained in Appendix
A.
Bibliography:
M Martin, R. 1928. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie
in systematischer Darstellung. 2nd ed., 3 vols. Vol. 2: Kraniologie, Osteologie.
Jena: Gustav Fischer.
V Vallois, H. V. 1965. Anthropometric
techniques. Current Anthropology 6/2: 127-143.
BR Broca, P. 1875. Instructions craniologiques et craniométriques.
Mém de la Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris, 2nd series, Vol. 2: 1-203, 6
pl.
MH (Papillaut, G., ed.) 1906. Entente internationale
pour I’unification des mesures craniométriques et céphalométriques.
L’Anthropologie, XVII: 559-572.
Hrdlicka, A. 1920. Anthropometry. 163 pp. Philadelphia:
Wistar Institute.
B Kollmann, J., J. Ranke, and R. Virchow 1883.
Verständigung über ein gemeinsames cranio-metrisches Verfahren.
Correspondenz-Blatt der deutschen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie,
Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 14: 1-8.
Many articles in Biometrika; see also Trevor 1950.
In addition, for special points:
AD Alekseev, V. P. and G. F. Debets. 1964. Kraniometria.
Metodika antropologicheskich isledovanii. Academy of
Sciences, USSR. Moscow, Nauka.
BM Buxton, L. H. D. and G. M. Morant. 1933.
The essential craniological technique. Part I. Definitions of points and
planes. J. Roy. Anthrop.Inst., 63: 19-47. (NB Part II was never published.)
HW Wilder, H. H. 1920. A laboratory manual of anthropometry.
193 pp. Philadelphia: Blakiston.
K Kherumian, R. 1949. Répertoire des points craniométriques
et anthropométriques. Rev. de Morpho-physiologie Humaine, 2: 22
pp.
P. Pearson, K. 1925. The definition of the alveolar point.
Biometrika, 17: 53-56.
T. Trevor, J. C. 1950. Anthropometry. In Chamber’s Encyclopedia,
New Edition, pp. 458-462.
W. Woo, T. L. 1937. A biometric study of the human malar
bone. Biometrika, 29: 113-123.
WM Woo, T. L. and G. M. Morant 1934. A biometric study
of the “flatness” of the facial skeleton in man. Biometrika, 26: 196-250.
LANDMARK DEFINITIONS
Asterion as
The common meeting point of the temporal, parietal, and
occipital bones, on either side.
If the meeting point is occupied by a wormian bone (os
astericum), extend the lambdoid suture onto its surface, and then extend
the other two sutures (temporo-parietal, temporo-occipital) to the first
line, finding asterion as the point midway between the intersections if
these do not coincide (BM). Use only the part of the last two sutures (ca.
1 cm) which is nearest the point, in finding these directions.
If the lambdoid (or other) suture is complex or composed
of wormian bones, trace a pencil line along the center of the area covered
by the complexity, as well as can be done, to find the main axis of the
suture.
If the sutures gape at this point, leaving an open space,
find asterion on the edge of the occipital bone.
Equivalent definitions: BM, M, K, BR
Basion
ba
On the anterior border of the foramen magnum, in the
midline, at the position pointed to by the apex of the triangular surface
at the base of either condyle, i.e., the average position from the crests
bordering this area. Mark carefully with a pencil.
In the most usual specimen the border of the foramen
will have a thickness of 1-2 mm and a rounded edge. The position chosen
will be about half way between the inner border directly facing the posterior
border (opisthion) and the lowermost point on the border, i.e., between
the points usually designated endobasion and hypobasion respectively. As
a practical matter, the point will almost always be the endpoint of the
basion-nasion length if the caliper is applied here so as to find a maximum.
It will correspond with endobasion only if there is a thin, sharp border
to the foramen.
The variation in structure here is considerable: in thickness
of the border, and in the presence of a small tubercle or a larger articular
surface. In the case of the former, displace basion to one side or the
other; in the case of an articular surface, place the point on this,
trying to estimate the position from directions above.
To estimate basion in a damaged skull, use a transverse
line connecting the posterior limits of the bases of the spinous processes
on either side. The elevation of basion in such a case can, however, be
only guessed at.
Notes:
1. There is no actual anatomical point “basion,” but
only a variety of conventions to establish a point at this site. Buxton
and Morant (BM) have reviewed the problems involved extensively. The definition
used here is meant to correspond with theirs (which I find a little difficult
to apply), and at least not to diverge from it; it reads: “the inferior
point in that plane of the basi-occipital region bounding the foramen.”
2. If basion is to be used for several different measurements,
and above all for the establishment of angles and facial triangles, it
must without question be not only a unique point but one which can be used
in all the measurements intended. This makes most undesirable the acceptance
of two separate points (M, V, K), a lower (hypobasion) and a posterior
(endobasion) merely for convenience in taking individual measurements,
or finding maximum readings in so doing, e.g., basion-bregma height, or
basion-prosthion length.
Equivalent definitions: BM
Bregma br
The posterior border of the frontal bone in the median
plane.
Normally this is the meeting point of the coronal and
sagittal sutures. The latter may diverge from the midline here, however,
and should not then be followed. (Metopic sutures should be disregarded.)
More commonly, the coronal suture may project slightly
backward in a smal point here, from the general smooth curve of the suture
on either side; or the two halves of the suture may meet in a short antero-posterior
line, i.e., one half may lie forward of the other where they reach the
midline. In these and similar cases, the general course of the suture as
a whole should be lightly drawn with a pencil, and the bregma established
on this. The point should mark the limits of the frontal and parietal segments
of the vault generally, not minor sutural variations.
If the coronal suture is nearly obliterated, its course
must be established from any remaining traces: if it is completely obliterated,
there is nothing to do but estimate the position of bregma.
The sutures may meet with rounded external edges, resulting
in a cleft or depression at their junction. Bregma is then to be established
“in the air” (BM), i.e., in its correct position but at the level of the
general surface of the bone and not, by sinking the caliper point into
such a fissure in measuring, below this surface. Some device, such as displacing
bregma slightly to one side in the same transverse plane, may be followed.
In any other questionable case where such a choice may
be necessary, bregma is considered to be on the frontal bone.
Equivalent definitions: M, BR, K, (BM).
Notes:
1. Buxton and Morant (BM) reject Martin’s recommendation
to place bregma in the midline by projecting forward the general course
of the sagittal suture, which they consider may be asymmetrical throughout
its length; instead they would use the anterior extremity of the sagittal
suture even if it does appear to be asymmetrically placed. This conflicts
with the aim of finding the essential border of the frontal bone in the
median plane.
Dacryon
dk
The apex of the lacrimal fossa, as it impinges on the
frontal bone. Mark with a pencil point on both sides.
In the ideal well-preserved specimen, the groove will
be clearly defined and sharply apexed, the apex corresponding well with
the inner wall of the orbit as viewed by sighting. The groove will be bisected
by the lacrimo-maxillary suture, which will meet the fronto-lacrimal and
fronto-maxillary sutures (the frontal bone) at the groove's apex. The inner
border of the orbit, curving down from above, will form a slight promontory
overhanging the apex of the groove and just lateral to it. The point determined
should be on the frontal bone.
There is much variation from the above pattern: the fossa
may be shallow with a broad or ill-de-fined apex; the suture may be obliterated;
the lacrimal bone itself may be absent anatomically or lost post mortem.
Approximate the point defined above, i.e., the apex, by using, in order
of priority:
(a) the lacrimal fossa observed from directly above,
a view which makes it easy to determine its course and the proper point
of its apex;
(b) the promontory on the frontal bone – the best guide
when the lacrimal bone is broken out entirely;
(c) the posterior border of the fossa – the point never
lies posterior or lateral to it, but may approach it;
(d) the lacrimo-maxillary suture, when the structures
are whole but the form of the fossa is shallow and undefined;
(e) there is often a small foramen just at the apex of
the fossa, which may be used as a guide, though it is apt to lie slightly
mesial to the apex proper.
Notes:
1. Dacryon is traditionally defined as the meeting point
of the frontal, maxillary, and lacrimal bones (or of the sutures involved).
Such a point is less easy to establish in most skulls than this would imply,
and the definition substituted here is meant to have a more specific basis
structurally (the lacrimal fossa), so that a search for it in difficult
cases has a guiding principle and does not depend on a sutural configuration
which is unreliable in several ways.
2. There is no satisfactory landmark for the inner border
of the orbit. Broca (1875) defined and named dacryon for the purpose, but
after long general use it was abandoned by both British (B) and French
(V) workers in favor of maxillofrontale, defined as the intersection of
the fronto-maxillary suture and the anterior lacrimal crest or its pencilled
extension. In effect this is the upward extension of the lower border of
the orbit. In a review of these problems by Piquet (1954) she gives evidence
that orbit breadth is less variable when measured from maxillofrontale
than when measured from dacryon, and adds, as arguments for using the former,
the fragility of the lacrimal bone (which does not affect maxillofrontale)
and the propriety of including the lacrimal fossa in the orbit when measuring
breadth.
I have preferred dacryon for the present study for these
reasons:
(a) Maxillofrontale is indeed not difficult to find,
and use for purposes of orbital breadth, but in fact in most cases its
location is somewhat vague and it is without clear structural meaning as
a point.
(b) Maxillofrontale is, not usually visible so
clearly on the orbital margin as diagrams of cranial points (e.g., Martin,
fig. 290) might imply; dacryon, as defined here, is more definitely related
both to the upper border and the lacrimal fossa, and is closer to the actual
margins of the orbit and of the inter-orbital space than is maxillo-frontale.
(c) In addition to wanting a point with a clear anatomical
basis, this point is used in measurements in an antero-posterior direction
(e.g., dacryon subtense), and not in orbit width only; dacryon is more
serviceable for these.
Ectoconchion
ek
The intersection of the most anterior surface of the
lateral border of the orbit and a line bisecting the orbit along its long
axis. Mark both sides with a pencil.
Hold the flat of a pencil lead so that this surface is
perpendicular to the median plane of the skull, i.e., tangent to the most
anterior curvature of the orbital margin, and use it to draw a line along
this crest. Turn the skull so as to be able to sight along the long axis
of the orbit, however oblique, and to bisect the orbit visually, with the
pencil as a sighting guide. Make a tick with the pencil where this axis
appears to intersect the line already made.
Note:
This does not appear to coincide with Martin’s point,
although it may in many cases where th orbital border is sharp. Martin’s
definition (p. 621) and diagram clearly refer to the "orbital margin,"
without reference to the anterior position of this. Here, the point is
on the line of the true profile of the orbit, the most anterior crest,
and relates to measures of facial flatness as well as to orbital width.
Frontomalare anterior fm:a
The most anterior point on the fronto-malar suture. It
may be found with the side of a pencil lead held in the transverse plane.
This is neither the orbital nor the temporal point of
the suture (Martin's frontomalare orbitale and temporale respectively),
nor is it the line of the orbital border. It is strictly the most anteriorly
projecting point, and is used for measurements relating to such projection.
The suture may be, and usually is, quite irregular in
its course here. No corrective for this is offered: the point is placed
on the suture wherever it may lie.
Lambda
la
The apex of the occipital bone at its junction with the
parietals, in the midline.
This is normally the meeting of the sagittal and
lambdoid sutures, but must be placed in the midline. The ruling principle,
as in the case of bregma, is to divide the parietal and occipital segments
of the sagittal section of the skull (BM).
There is often an intercalary or apical bone at the site,
in which case lambda is to be found by extending the general curving course
of each half of the lambdoid suture to their intersections with the midline;
if these extensions do not meet the midline in a single point, lambda is
halfway between such intersections (BM).
In occasional cases, the apex of the occipital makes
an obvious forward excursion along the midline, away from the general
course of the suture, and probably resulting from an apical bone joined
to the occipital. The same procedure as immediately above is followed.
The lambdoid suture itself may be very complex or composed
largely of wormian bones. Trace a pencil line along the center of such
an area on each side, to find lambda as above.
Equivalent definitions: BM, BR, (M)
Nasion
na
The intersection of the fronto-nasal suture and the median
plane. Mark with a pencil.
This does not refer to the internasal suture in any way.
If there is irregularity near the midline, rectify the general curve of
the fronto-nasal suture with a pencil so as to find the correct level for
nasion.
Except for this last, a general rule is to consider nasion
as on the frontal bone (BM, V). I.e., if the fronto-nasal suture
forms a cleft or gap, locate nasion on the midline just at the angle between
the facial and sutural surfaces of the frontal bone itself.
Equivalent definitions: BM, V, M.
Opisthion
os
The inferior edge of the posterior border of the foramen
magnum in the midline.
The posterior border is virtually always either a sharp
edge or one which makes a clear angle between the external surface and
the actual border of the foramen.
Equivalent definitions: BM, V (?)
Prosthion
pr
The most anteriorly prominent point, in the midline,
on the alveolar border, above the septum between the central incisors.
Mark with a pencil.
This most anterior point (with the skull erect in a position
corresponding to the eye-ear plane) is generally easily seen, but if the
bone descends smoothly into the inter-incisor septum, while also continuing
to slope forward, find the point in the general line of the border elsewhere
along the gum. There is apt to be a thickening or reinforcement of the
border slightly below the arcs of exposure of the tooth roots along the
row, especially if there has been some slight (not marked) retraction of
the edges of the alveoli - this is the level sought for prosthion.
Because of frequent damage, and of ante-mortem loss or
avulsion of the incisors, location of prosthion for actual measurement
may be difficult, resulting in the need for approximations or estimates
of its original position. Sighting along the border on either
side of the central region will help.
The point is often slightly recessed between the incisors
themselves. If the recession is exceptionally deep, the point should correspond
to the center of a more gentle concavity, i.e., about that which
would meet the rounded tip of the spreading caliper, so that this may be
used directly in measuring basion-prosthion length.
Notes:
1. See note #2 under basion. There can be only
one landmark for measuring and defining angles in this region. Prosthion,
as here defined, is decidedly more suitable than the inferior tip
(alveolar point, alveolare) of the process between the incisors, because
natural variation, damage and resorption all affect the latter to a greater
degree.
2. Historically, after a period of confusion (P), both
the German (M) and the French (V) schools accepted the usage of two points
for vertical and horizontal measurements respectively, i.e., hypo-prosthion
and exoprosthion (V). The Biometric Laboratory on the other hand
recognized the difficulty of two points (P, BM), and selected the lower
- alveolar point, or alveolare - as the single point for use. Pearson (P)
defined prosthion as the "point in which the geodesic on the anterior surface
of the alveolar arch between the midpoints of the anterior
faces of the middle incisors at the anterior alveolar border meets the
incisive suture," which seems to correspond with the definition
here.
Equivalent definition: P.
Stephanion st
The intersection of the coronal suture and the limit
of the temporal muscle (the inferior temporal line). Mark with a
pencil on both sides.
The temporal line is generally divided before reaching
the suture; if not, the upper limit is used. The lower line may follow
a mutual course with the suture for a short distance, in which case the
posterior end of this course is used. In general, it may help to imagine
the point as the end of the inferior temporal line on a detached frontal
bone.
In some skulls surface erosion or poor definition make
finding the point difficult. Better definition on one side may help on
the other. Also, the point usually coincides with the lower end of the
pars complicata of the suture, if this is discernible.
Note:
Broca defined stephanion as a region along the suture,
ending below where the suture changed from complicated to simple, this
point being the one to use in measuring. This usually coincides with
stephanion as defined above.
Equivalent definitions: (BR), M, V.
Subspinale
ss
The deepest point seen in the profile below the anterior
nasa! spine.
Practically, this relates to the deepest points found
in measuring zygomaxillary subtense and subspinale radius; and one must
bear in mind that the point is on the crest, or profile, not in the fissure
of the intermaxillary suture.
If the nasal spine is small or eroded, the point is difficult
to locate. It should not be placed internal to the outermost limit of the
lower border of the aperture.
Equivalent definition: M.
Zygomaxillare anterior
zm:a
The intersection of the zygomaxillary suture and the
limit of the attachment of the masseter muscle, on the facial surface.
Mark with a pencil on both sides.
In very rare cases, and in association with an os japonicum,
the suture runs more posteriorly, and over a centimeter lateral to the
anterior end of the masseter attachment. It then is apt to be located beyond
the angle of the malar; in such cases it is recommended that the point
be placed on the facial surface, on the masseter limit, not more than 6-8
mm from the anterior end of the masseter area. if obliteration makes the
facial part of the suture difficult to follow, inspection of its course,
if present, on the internal surface of the arch may help.
Notes:
1. This is not the point defined by Martin (p. 621) and
used by Woo and Morant, which is the lowermost end of the zygomaxillary
suture, not facial in position. Such a point is not useful (Woo and Morant
to the contrary) for measurements of facial flatness and projection, and
the point defined here is that used by Russian anthropologists.
2. A better point for most of the same purposes would
probably be the most anterior point on the masseter attachment on the facial
surface. It is difficult to see the usefulness of the suture for
these purposes. However, such a point has not been used, except approximately
by Landauer.
Equivalent definition: AD.
Zygoorbitale
zo
The intersection of the orbital margin and the zygomaxillary
suture. Mark with a pencil.
Since the orbital border is usually softly rounded here,
the point should be found midway between the facial and orbital surfaces.
A small process of the malar may extend several millimeters
mesially from the rest of the bone just here, pushing the suture
and point well inward along the orbital margin, and increasing the measurement
of malar length by the length of this sliver. As a convention,
the point is never placed mesial to the plane of the medial border of
the infraorbital foramen.
Equivalent definitions: K, W.
MEASUREMENT DEFINITIONS
Many of the precise instructions assume a righthanded worker; a left handed one will have to fend for himself.
Glabello-occipital length GOL Ia
Greatest length, from the glabellar region, in the median
sagittal plane.
Rest the skull with the base up facing the observer,
which makes sighting the midplane easier. Place the left caliper point
in the glabellar region in the midline and move the right point along the
occiput in the midline for the maximum reading. On finding this, move the
left point up and down slightly to make sure the reading is maximum.
Synonyms:
M Grösste Hirnschädellänge
1
B Greatest glabello-occipital length
L (see note 4)
V Maximum length
MH Longueur maxima du crane 1 (see note 3)
Notes:
1. The anterior point must be confined to the glabellar,
supraorbital region. In ocasional female skulls with vertical foreheads
and little or no glabellar protrusion, moving the anterior point up the
frontal bone will give readings higher than the glabellar region itself,
which nevertheless can be determined with little difficulty.
2. The external occipital protuberance (inion) may be
so well developed that the maximum length lies at this point, though
such cases are uncommon and are confined to particular populations. This
length is not accepted as measuring the contour, or actual cranial
length, unless it forms part of a broad nuchal crest development. In almost
every case a secondary but true maximum may be found higher on the
occiput, and this should be used. If it cannot be found, and the inion
is still clearly a special development, approximate the contour of the
bone and/or the crest in this area, discounting the protuberance itself,
and make the best estimate of length accordingly. The most likely site
for measurement in such cases may be the notch in the midline directly
above the downward curve usually taken by the nuchal crest here (see under
occipital subtense).
3. This is the maximum length of the Monaco Agreement
but, contrary to the specific statement of that document, Hrdlicka asserted
that it intended to disregard the median plane, so that his
own definition differs. The practice of Hrdlicka, also of Vallois,
of holding the caliper in one hand, near the hinge, to manipulate it, is
not preferred here, as allowing less control by the fingers.
4. The Biometric Laboratory usage has evidently been
to observe the median plane, though this is not explicit. The Frankfort
Agreement, from which it was drawn, gives for Grösste Länge,
"gr. L: von der Mitte zwischen den Arcus superciliares bis zu dem am meisten
vorragenden Punkt des Hinterhauptes." Fawcett's early (1902) list gives
for L: "greatest length, from glabella to the most projecting point at
the back of the skull."
Macdonnell (1904) reports that he closely followed Miss
Fawcett, and gives a similar definition, as do most subsequent writers,
even Pearson in his 1928 article on the Egyptian E series, in which he
dwelt at some length on the great importance of standardization.
However, Morant in 1927 and in further papers as late
as 1937 specified the median plane (as does Trevor 1950), noting
that L was therefore different from the Monaco maximum length, which
did not specify this plane (which the Monaco Agreement in fact does specify).
Finally, there is in the Duckworth Laboratory a notebook evidentally drawn
up by Evelyn Thomson to record and control the work being done on the Egyptian
E series (it is dated May,1907), which contains the following:
Greatest length from glabella to the occiput. (L).
Measurement taken exactly similar to Macdonnell.
Care must be used, that this measurement is taken in the median plane,
and this is best assured by having the skull facing you.
It thus seems clear that actual practice in the Biometric
Laboratory was always to use the midplane.
This is not a trivial point, especially since maximum
length has been a universally taken measurement. Small asymmetries will
make the "most distant" or "most projecting" point further from glabella
than any in the midline. And such differences will also cause a photographic
profile of a skull to give a greater reading than the midline maximum.
For various reasons, although agreement with a photographic
measurement would be desirable, the midplane measurement is to be
preferred. Only by using it can length in a slightly asymmetrical skull
be assumed to give the best approximation to a symmetrical one (no
safe assumption in any case). And since other measurements (such as lengths
of occipital, and angles) also follow the midplane, this measurement best
coordinates with them.
Nasio-Occipital length NOL
la
Greatest cranial length in the median sagittal plane,
measured from nasion.
With the skull in position as for glabello-occipital
length, place the left caliper point at nasion, sighting to be certain
that the point, especially if blunt, is properly aligned with nasion. Move
the right point along the occiput in the midline for the maximum reading.
Synonym:
M Hirnschädellänge von Nasion aus.
1d
Note:
See Note 2 under Glabello-occipital length.
Basion-nasion length BNL la
Direct length between nasion and basion.
With the skull in position as for glabello-occipital
length, place the capiler points at, or align them carefully with, nasion
(left point) and basion (right point).
Synonyms:
»M Schädelbasislänge
5
»B Length of skull base
LB
»V Nasion-basion length
»MH Diamètre naso-basilaire
9
Notes:
1. As Martin notes, if the caliper end is not sufficiently
pointed, it may not reach nasion in a deeply notched
nasal root. In such a case the accuracy of the measurement can
be checked by using one of the other instruments with
sharp points.
2. The measurements noted above as approximate synonyms
probably coincide in practice with this one, as normally finding basion
at the maximum distance from nasion, where my definition would also usually
find it.
Basion-bregma height
BBH la
Distance from bregma to basion, as defined.
Rest the skull on the occiput, with its right side facing
the observer. Place the left caliper point at bregma, and find basion carefully
with the right.
Synonyms:
(B Basio-bregmatic height H' insofar as the BM definition
of basion is followed.)
(This is not the same as Martin #17, which like many
others uses hypobasion, to give a maximum diameter.)
Notes:
1. Do not sink the left
point into any cleft which may exist at the coronal suture;
the measurement should be to the general contour of the skull at bregma,
and if there is a depression, the point is to be placed before (or behind)
it in the midline. Bregma is on the frontal bone, when any question arises.
2. Since basion has usually been
defined as two points depending on the measurement, with hypobasion
used for basion-bregma height, there are no exact equivalents for the measurement
described above. The following are approximate
equivalents, which will sometimes give the same reading as in the above
measurement, but will usually exceed it and never fall short of it:
M Basion-Bregma Höhe 17; BR Diamètre vertical basilo-bregmatique;
V Basion-bregma height. For MH, basion is apparently endobasion, so that
Hauteur basilo-bregmatique, 4a, may coincide but if not, it will be less.
Maximum cranial breadth
XCB Ia
The maximum cranial breadth perpendicular to the median
sagittal plane (above the supramastoid crests).
Rest the skull on its base, with the occiput facing the
observer. Use free ring finger and little finger at the mastoid region
to be sure caliper points are symmetrically placed. Try first to
find the maximum on the parietals; if it must be found on the temporals,
be certain to avoid the supramastoid crests completely.
Synoñyms:
M Grösste Hirnschädelbreite
8
V Maximum breadth
H Maximum breadth
3
Notes:
1. If, as is often the case, slight warping has
separated the temporal squamata from the parietals, an allowance must be
estimated if the measurement must be made on the temporals.
2. The Biometriec Laboratory version of B is defined
by Morant (1937) as being "the maximum transverse diameter on the
parietal bones" and thus as differing from the Monaco Agreement,
H3, “maximum breadth above the mastoids and roots
of zygomae" (although in another place Morant
(1928) equates B with Martin's 8, which is the same as MH,3). Some other
lists in Biometrika similarly indicate that the measurement is to be made
on the parietals only - see also Trevor 1950 - and Miss Thomson's
1907 notebook likewise says: "The measure should not be made upon
the edges of the lower bones which sometimes are warped, & give a false
maximum."
Maximum frontal breadth XFB Ia
The maximum breadth at the coronal suture,
perpendicular to the median plane.
Rest the skull on its base, with the face toward observer. Apply the caliper points to the coronal suture on either side being sure that they are symmetrically placed, and find the maximum at any level. The measurement may be thought of as if it were finding the maximum external breadth of an isolated frontal bone.
Synonyms:
M Grösste Stirnbreite
10
B Maximum frontal breadth
B”
V Maximum frontal breadth
MH Largeur frontale maxima 6
Notes:
1. The measurement cannot be less than the bistephanic
breadth, a useful check.
2. If the suture is obliterated in the temporal fossa,
its course must be estimated from what indications remain.
Bistephanic breadth
STB IIa
Breadth between the intersections,
on either side, of the coronal suture and the inferior temporal line
marking the origin of the temporal muscle
(the stephanion points).
In a large majority of cases the uppermost limit of the temporal origin (the fascia) can be distinguished from a lower line. Follow the latter (or the former if no distinction can be made) and mark with a pencil its intersection with the coronal suture. Line and suture may follow a common course for a short distance, in which case the point (stephanion) lies at the posterior end of this course. With the skull in position as for maximum frontal breadth, measure between the marked stephania.
Synonym:
M Stephanienbreite
10b
Notes:
1. The breadth may coincide with the maximum frontal
breadth but is otherwise necessarily less.
2. Surface erosion or indistinctness may make determination
of the points difficult. If it is found on one side, the principle of symmetry
may help locate it on the other. It also generally corresponds with the
lower limit of the pars complicata of the suture, where this can be defined.
Bizygomatic breadth ZYB IIa
The maximum breadth across the zygomatic arches, wherever
found, perpendicular to the median plane.
With the skull resting on the occiput with the base toward the observer, place the flat arms of the calipers on the zygomatic arches at their broadest point, making sure that the caliper is vertical to the median plane. Move it very slightly to assure a maximum reading.
Synonyms:
M Jochbogenbreite 45
B Zygomatic breadth J
V Bizygomatic breadth
MH Diamètre bizygomatique 8
Note:
If one arch is broken, make the best approximate reading
by placing the caliper in position and estimating the original
projection of the damaged arch. Then take
a reading from the midline of the skull (palatine suture, vomer,
basion) to the good arch, and double this. If the two readings agree
closely, write an estimated figure followed by "?". If damage
is such that this check is not feasible but an estimate seems good, write
this with "??". If both sides are badly
damaged, make the best guess followed by "???".
Biauricular breadth AUB
IIa
The least exterior breadth across the roots of the zygomatic
processes, wherever found.
With the skull resting on the occiput and with the
base toward the observer, measure to the outside of the
roots of the zygomatic process at their deepest incurvature,
generally slightly anterior to the meatus, with the sharp points of the
caliper.
Synonym:
M (Biauricularbreite)
11b
Notes:
1. This measurement makes no
reference to standard landmarks of the ear region, e.g., porion or
auriculare. It is an external basal breadth. It is the biauricular
used by Landauer 1963, but is not the same as that used by the author in
a recent study (1966), which employed auriculare as a landmark (Martin
#11). Accurate determination of this proved difficult and time consuming,
to no visible purpose. The biauricular used
here is simple, accurate on repetition, and anatomically sound.
2. The measurement is specifically
different from those using other endpoints, e.g., M Biauricularbreite 11;
or B Bi-auricular B = BR Diamètre biauriculaire = M
IIa, all these being taken to Broca’s points sus-auriculaires, which are
on the temporal above the zygomatic roots.
Minimum cranial breadth WCB IIa
The breadht across the sphenoid at the base
of the temporal fossa, at the infratemporal crests.
With a pencil lead, held at 45º to the vertical,
find the infratemporal crest (actually poorly defined) which divides the
temporal from the basal surface of the sphenoid, trying to draw a flattisc
curve which leaves the varying small crests and tubercles in this
region on the inferior side of the line. The deepest
(most medial) point of the curve should still be
on the temporal surface. With the skull base up and occiput facing the
observer, measure the least distance between these lines with the
sharp points of the calipers.
It may help to sight from the inner limit of the glenoid
fossa toward the orbital fissure, at the zygomaxillary junction.
Synonym:
M Kleinste Schädelbreite
14
Notes:
1. If the pterygoid processes are large, the longest
arms of the caliper may be used. If the skull must be
measured with the mandible fixed in place, the
spreading calipers Ia must be used, though this is awkward.
2. In male skulls there is
more frequently a well-developed tubercle projecting downward
near the anterior end, and most mesial part, of the infratemporal crest.
Draw the line on the lateral surface of this tubercle, but definitely on
its “flat” part, i.e., in the temporal fossa.
Biasterionic breadth ASB Iia
Direct measurement from one asterion to the other.
With the skull resting on the frontal region, occiput
facing the observer, measure the distance from one asterion to the with
the sharp points of the caliper.
Synonyms:
M Grösste Hinterhauptsbreite 12
B Chord, asterion R to asterios L
Biasterionic-B
Notes:
1. If the sutures gape somewhat at this point, measure
at the edge of the occipital bone; it is meant to be a measure of the breadth
of the occipital in this region.
2. If there is a wormian bone (os astericum) at the point,
use the procedure of Buxton and Morant; extend all three sutures on its
surface, and mark the lambdoid extension midway between its intersection
with the extensions of the other two.
3. If there is simply na area of complex suturation,
find the central point of this as well as posible.
Basion-prosthion length BPL
IIa (or Ia)
The facial length from prosthion to basion, as defined.
With the skull resting base upward, face to the left, measure between previously marked prosthion and basion with the points of the caliper. If the incisors are present, it will usually be necessary to use the spreading calipers instead.
Synonyms:
M Gesichtslänge
40
V Basion-prosthion height (sic)
MH Diamètre alvéolo-basilaire
10
Notes:
1. This differs from any measurement
which uses the alveolar tip (alveolare), or the endobasion.
2. In the common case of incisor loss or other damage
to the anterior alveolar border, it may be necessary to estimate
the measurement by gauging the missing portion to find an imaginary prosthion.
3. Note that the previously marked prosthion should
be used. This should not be the same as the lowest point
of the alveolar border seen in this view of the skull.
Nasion-prosthion height
NPH IIa
Upper facial height from nasion to prosthion, as defined.
Measure with the skull face up, base to the right, between previously marked landmarks.
Notes:
1. In the case of damage to the area of prosthion, an
estimate must be made by visually prolonging the thickened rim of the alveolar
border between lateral teeth to the point of the estimated original midline
profile. Use of the flat arms for sighting, rather than the pointed
arms, may facilitate this estimate. Record the degree of uncertainty with
question marks.
2. See definition of prosthion.
Most corresponding measurements are made from nasion to “prosthion”=
hypoprosthion = alveolar point = alveolare, e.g., M Obergesichtshöhe
48; B Upper face height G’H; V Height of upper face; MH Diamètre
naso-alvéolaire 12. These are all equivalent, and all different
from nasion-prosthion height as defined here.
Nasal height
NLH IIa
The average height from nasion to the lowest point on
the border of the nasal aperture on either side.
With the skull face up, base to the right, measure the above distance on each side and strike an average to the nearest whole millimeter. A correct figure is greatly facilitated by a dial or vernier caliper.
Synonyms:
B Nasal height
NH
(»M Nasenhöhe
55)
(»V Nasal height)
(»MH Nasal height
13)
Notes:
1. The lower border of the aperture is well defined in
most populations. It is not always the most anterior
edge, but the beginning of the actual floor
of the nasal cavity. It is the hinder border, not the forward border,
of any prenasal gutter or fossa. If the border is gently sloping,
determine the floor of the cavity as well as possible by sighting, and
make a pencil mark, being aided by any sign of a border originating from
the septum, not the lateral edges. In brief, this is the height of the
functional nasal structure, not taking account of special variations of
the most anterior part of the opening.
2. This is not quite the same as a measurement made to
nasospinale, i.e., the intersection with the midplane of a
line joining the two subnasal points defined above (as in M Nasenhöhe
55; V Nasal height). The readings obtained should be virtually identical
but the one used here measures one side of a narrow isosceles triangle,
of which the other measurements cited are the bisector. Note that,
for MH, the Monaco Agreement uses nasospinale while Hrdlicka himself says
"measure to base of spine, or separately to each subnasal point and record
the mean," two quite different techniques (the second of which is followed
here), both of which differ from the Monaco Agreement and Hrdlicka's translation
thereof.
Orbit height, left OBH IIb
The height between the upper and lower borders of the
orbit, perpendicular to the long axis of the orbit and bisecting it.
With the skull upside down and facing the observer, use
the inside calipers to measure betweeen the borders - this is an inside
measurement. Bisect the orbit visually, referring to its own axes, not
to the planes of the skull.
Synonyms:
M Orbitalhöhe
52
B Greatest height of orbit
O2L
V Orbital height
MH Hauteur orbitaire
Notes:
1. Substitute the right orbit if both diameters cannot
be taken on the left. While there are apt to be constant differences
between the two orbits, this is the best means of estimating the diameters
of the left orbit.
2. The height should be taken at the midpoint of the
long axis; if there is a deep notching just here in the lower border
(as is common in some populations) move the measurement very slightly medialward.
Orbit breadth, left OBB
IIb
Breadth from ectoconchion to dacryon, as defined, approximating
the longitudinal axis which bisects the orbit into equal upper and lower
parts.
With the skull upside down and facing the observer, use the inside calipers to measure between the points, of which ectoconchion at least should always be marked.
Synonym:
B Orbital breadth from
dacryon O'1 (?)
Notes:
1. See Note #1 under orbit height.
2. This differs from any measurement in which ectoconchion
is not located as here (e.g. M 51a).
3. The measurement is taken to be synonymous with that
of the Biometric Laboratory on the assumption that ectoconchion is defined
in the same way (the most anterior point on the lateral border of the orbit-see
Trevor). Other orbital breadths are made to an ectoconchion apparently
placed at the rim of the orbit itself (e.g., M 51a) or are measured from
maxillofrontale.
Bijugal breadth JUB Iia
The external breadth across the malars at the jugalia,
i.e., at the deepest points in the curvature between the frontal and temporal
process of the malars.
The jugalia should be noted carefully, and preferably marked. With the skull right side up and facing slightly up, place the sharp edges of the flat caliper arms against the curve of the malar at the correct point on either side. The measurement, however, is external, i.e., to lateral points, if these differ from jugale as defined by authors.
Synonym:
M Hinterer jochbeinbreite
45(1)
Notes:
1. This measurement should at first be repeated several
times on each skull, until consistency is attained in locating the observed
point correctly with the calipers. Canting the
calipers slightly up from a horizontal plane (relative to the skull)
will help in applying the edges correctly.
2. The measurement is a particularly good example of
those in which the positioning of the skull (it can be taken readily with
the skull base up or base down) and the application of the instrument can
give errors, or divergences between workers, having nothing to do with
the definition of the measurement or the understanding of it. This is the
reason for the precise description of the skull position in all these definitions.
However, high consistency nevertheless results from careful
attention to the points used. In early work
it is likely that the measurement will be underestimated.
Nasal breadth
NLB IIa
The distance between the anterior
edges of the nasa/ aperture at its widest extent.
Use the sharp points of the caliper, and remember that
this is not an inside measurement.
Synonyms:
M Nasenbreite
54
B Nasal breadth NB
V Nasal breadth
MH Largeur du nez 14
Palate breadth MAB IIa
The greatest breadth across the alveolar borders, wherever
found, perpendicular to the median plane.
With the skull base up, apply the flat arms of the calipers
to the bone of the alveolar border to find the maximum reading, being sure
the arms are parallel to the midline.
Synonyms:
M Maxilloalveolarbreite
61
V Maxilloalveolar breadth
MH Largeur du bord alvéolaire
supérieur 18
Notes:
1. Measure to the bone, not the teeth, unless the roots
are exposed at the widest point.
2. If there is some obvious special growth on one
side, make allowance.
3. In cases of damage or tooth loss, estimate as
well as possible by the method used for bizygomatic. Make the best estimate
directly by visual reconstruction, and check by measuring from the
good side to the midline and doubling. Indicate the probable reliability
of the estimate with question marks.
Mastoid height
MDH IIa
The length of the mastoid process below, and perpendicular
to, the eye-ear plane, in the vertical plane.
With the skull lying on its right side and facing
the observer, place the calibrated bar of the caliper just behind the process
on the left side, so that the fixed arm is tangent to the upper border
of the auditory meatus and pointing (by visual
sighting) to the lowest point on the border of the orbit. The calibrated
bar should be perpendicular to the eye-ear plane of the skull (i.e.,
approximately level in the position given),
not following the axis of the process itself, in either
plane; sighting across the flat measuring surface of the fixed arm
should indicate whether it is in fact level with the upper edge of
the meatus. Move the measuring arm until it is level with the tip
of the process, using the flat surface of the arm once more as control
to sight across the tip of the process and, where possible, to the
tip of the opposite process as well. This entails
a slight shift of eye position for sighting while holding the caliper firm.
Repeat for the other side, reversing the caliper. Average
the two sides to the nearest millimeter. If the discrepancy between them
is 3 or 4 mm, repeat as a check.
Notes:
1. The upper edge of the meatus should be the limit
of the shadowed, deep portion. If a previous worker has marked porion
on the skull, it should be found to correspond well with this.
2. This is the same measurement as that used by Giles
and Elliot 1963, though the technique is slightly different. Giles
and Elliot based theirs on the measurement of Keen 1950, which, however,
differs in not referring to the eye-ear plane, either in finding the upper
level or in orienting the instrument, since it is made along the process
itself.
3. An alternative and possibly better measurement would
be to measure (also by sighting) from the deepest point of the glenoid
fossa and at right angles to the line of the top of the zygomatic root.
4. For references to other methods of measuring mastoid
dimensions, including length, see Vallois 1969.
Bibliography:
Giles, E. and O. Elliot. 1963. Sex determination
by discriminant function analysis of crania. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop.
2: 53-68.
Keen, J. A. 1950. A study of the differences between
male and female skulls. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 8: 65-79.
Vallois, H.V. 1969. Le temporal néanderthalien
H 27 de La Quina. Étude anthropologique. L'Anthropologie,
73: 365-400, 525-544.
Mastoid width
MDB IIa
Width of the mastoid process
at its base, through its transverse axis.
Measure from the incisura mastoidea, or digastric groove, to a corresponding level on the external surface of the process, transversely with reference to the process itself, not with reference to the skull. Where the digastric groove is not the obvious inner limit, because of irregularities in the formation of the process, measure from the base of the main body of the latter. Average the two sides to the nearest millimeter.
Notes:
1. This is an attempt to get a measure of the bulk of
the process independent of the length as measured with reference
to the eye-ear plane, since this length is affected by features
of placement of the process and not by size alone. The difficulty
of finding consistent landmarks for the width, especially at its internal
point, makes this an unsatisfactory measurement.
2. The measurement was adopted
because Schaefer (1961) reported a marked
sexual dimorphism in it, making it useful for sexing remains from
cremations. Schaefer defines it merely as "von der Incisura
mastoidea bis zur Aussenkante der Mastoidfortsätze."
Bibliography:
Schaefer, U. 1961. Grenzen und Möglichkeiten der
anthropologischen Untersuchung von Leichenbränden. Bericht über
den V. Internationalen Kongress für Vor-und Frühgeschichte, Hamburg
1958: 717-724.
Bimaxillary breadht ZMB IIIa
The breadth across the maxillae, from one zygomaxillare
anterior to the other.
With the skull face up, set each arm of the coordinate caliper on zygomaxillare anterior, and set screw firmly.
Synonym:
AD zygomaxillary breadth
Note:
This is not the same, though it is close to, other midfacial
or maxillary breadths which use the previously defined zygomaxillare, i.e.,
the lowermost edge of the zygomaxillary suture, which is not the facial
surface. It differs from M 46 and B GB.
Bimaxillary subtense SSS IIIa
The projection or subtense from subspinale to the bimaxillary
breadth.
Wich the caliper in position for bimaxillary chord, lower the coordinate arm to subspinale and set the screw for reading.
Synonym:
AD (zygomaxillary subtense)
Notes:
1. If the nasal spine is small or eroded, location of
subspinale may be be defficult and somewhat arbitrary. This is unusual.
2. The point of the caliper is not to be lowered into
the intermaxillary suture, if this is open. The measurement is to the profile
of the subnasal region here, and should be made on the sharp edge to one
side of the suture whenever necessary.
Bifrontal breadth FMB IIIa
The breadth across the frontal bone between frontomalare
anterior on each side, i.e., the most anterior point on the fronto-malar
suture.
With the skull face up, set each arm of the coordinate caliper on the designated points, and set the screw firmly.
Notes:
1. The fronto-rrialar suture varies in position and may
wander rather widely on the surface, but nevertheless
is used to determine the point. If there is any question, because of breakage
or an open suture, the measure is to be taken on the frontal bone, this
being what it is meant to measure.
2. This differs from both M Obergesichtsbreite 43, measured
to the external points on the suture (frontomalare temporale), and WM Internal
bi-orbital breadth IOW (=M Innere orbitale Gesichtsbreite 43(1)), measured
to the inner suture points frontomalare orbitale).
Nasio-frontal subtense NAS
Illa
The subtense from nasion to
the bifrontal breadth.
With the calipers in position for bifrontal breadth, lower the coordinate arm to nasion, and set the screw firmly.
Note:
Do not let the point sink into an open nasofrontal suture;
find nasion on the frontal bone just at the angle
of its facial and sutural edges. This subtense and the bifrontal breadth
relate to the frontal bone.
Biorbital breadth EKB
IIIc
The breadth across the orbits from ectoconchion to ectoconchion.
With the skull face up, place the points on ectoconchion, previously marked on either side, and set the screws firmly.
Note:
Ectoconchion is here defined as lying on the most anterior
surface of the orbital border, and the caliper points rest on this
crest of the convexity for this and the next measurement. The breadth
differs from any using a more medial position for ectoconchion - cf. Martin,
p. 621 and diagram, p. 656.
Dacryon subtense
DKS IIIc
The mean subtense from dacryon (average of
two sides) to the biorbital breadth.
With the caliper points in position for biorbital breadth
(i.e., resting on the ectoconchia); lower the coordinate arm to the level
of dacryon on the right side and read; repeat on the left side, and
use the average to the nearest whole millimeter. (It is easier to read
this measurement first, before removing the instrument to read biorbital
breadth.) Repeat if there is discrepancy or uncertainty.
Notes:
1. This is a difficult measurement, because of the nature
of dacryon (which should be marked), and because of the ease with which
the lateral points slip off the ectoconchion. It requires practice
in manipulation.
2. If the caliper has a coordinate arm pointed on one
side (e.g., IIIa), the dacryon should be measured
on one side; and then the skull should be pivoted 180º, so that the
vertex faces the observer, and the caliper repositioned to measure the
other side.
3. The measurement is read to
the nearest whole millimeter; in spite of its small scale it cannot
be made with such precision as to justify
reading to 1/10 mm.
Interorbital breadth
DKB IIIc
The breadth across the nasal space from dacryon to dacryon.
With the skull face up, place the lateral points on the dacryon, with particular attention to the antero-posterior location of these. Hold the instrument in such a way that it can also be kept in position for measuring the naso-dacryal subtense, and set the screw.
Synonyms:
Pearson Nasodacryal chord
DC
M Zwischenaugenbreite
49a
Note:
This is also a taxing measurement because of the
difficulty of locating and maintaining the
points on dacryon while also measuring the subtense and avoiding damage
to delicate lacrimal bones. Measuring breadth and subtense is a joint operation.
Naso-dacryal subtense
NDS Illc
The subtense from the deepest point in the profile of
the nasal bones to the interorbital breadth.
With the caliper in position for interorbital breadth, lower the coordinate arm to the deepest point in the nasal profile, i.e., onto the most convex point in the transverse section at the most concave point in the profile, and not into the internasal suture. Read to the nearest whole millimeter.
Synonym:
Pearson Nasodacryal
subtense
Notes:
1. Because of the difficulty of placing the lateral points
very precisely, reading to 1/10 mm is not justified.
2. This subtense and the dacryon subtense will sum approximately
to a subtense from the nasal saddle to the biorbital breadth, if this is
measured, since they represent two components in the projection of the
nasal bridge from the line of the orbital margins, one being a subtense
from dacryon, the other a subtense to dacryon. They will not necessarily
sum exactly to this total subtense because of approximations to whole millimeters
(and other errors); and will in fact tend to be less, since they are in
parallel but separate planes on which the projection of the total subtense
is smaller than the direct measurement.
Simotic chord (Least nasal breadth)
WNB IIIc
The minimum transverse breadth across the two nasal bones,
or chord between the naso-maxillary sutures at their closest approach.
Read to 1/10 mm.
Synonyms:
WM Simotic chord
SC
M Kleinste Breite der Nasenbeine
57
Notes:
1. The measurement is between the naso-maxillary sutures,
i.e., never above the fronto-nasal suture, if there is a rectangular upward
extension of the nasalia here.
2. Martin notes that the position will be high if the
naso-maxillary sutures are nearly parallel, but much lower if they are
hourglass form. Measurement must be made wherever the minimum distance
lies, though some consideration should be given to the general course of
the sutures in the not uncommon case of sudden
inward excursions of one suture.
3. The simotic measurements were
originally introduced by Mérejkowsky 1882, and named by Pearson
(Benington 1912: 316).
4. In a few populations (Eskimos) the
nasalia may not reach the frontal bone, but pinch out; or they may be absent
entirely. In such a case there is nothing to do but take a measurement
lower down, or measure the structure which substitutes; zero measurements
cannot be allowed.
5. A possible improvement on
this measurement and the next: to use the deepest point of
the nasal saddle, not the point of
least nasal breadth. The two may coincide much of the time.
Simotic subtense
SIS IIIc
The subtense from the nasal bridge to the simotic chord,
i.e., from the highest point in the transverse section which is at
the deepest point in the nasal profile.
With the caliper in position for simotic chord,
lower the coordinate arm to the most prominent point or ridge (i.e., not
into the internasal suture) on the nasalia, while the instrument is tilted
so as to find the geperally lowest
projection of the bones with relation to the chord.
Read to 1/10 mm.
Synonym:
WM Simotic subtense
SS
Notes:
1. Woo and Morant counsel marking
the "ridge" of the nasal bones in this region with the flat
side of a pencil lead.
2. Pearson (1934) was concerned about the geometric
effect of any lateral displacement of the highest point from the
midline, i.e., the effect on the computed angle; but this hardly
seems worth taking account of in view of other comparatively generous
sources of error in measures of this
small scale.
Malar length, inferior
IML IIa
The direct distance from zygomaxillare anterior to the
lowest point of the zygo-temporal suture on the external surface,
on the left side.
With the skull resting approximately on the right parietal, measure with the pointed arms between the previously marked points. Use the right side if necessary.
Notes:
1. This measures the major part of the extent of the
origin of the anterior part of the masseter muscle. It
is not the same, however, as the "anterior masseter" of Landauer
1962, used also in Howells 1966. The posterior
point (Woo's ZT) coincides closely with the posterior
limit of the masseter attachment which, however, runs anteriorly beyond
the zigomaxillary suture about 5 millimeters onto the maxilla. In this
study, the measurement has been changed to use the point zygomaxillare
anterior, so as to integrate it with other measurements, e.g., bimaxillary
breadth and zygomaxillare radius.
2. A full or partial os japonicum (division of the malar
by a horizontal suture) was present rarely in most populations. In some
cases it appeared to have the effect of shortening and deepening the body
of the malar, and especially of displacing the zygo-maxillary suture laterally
and posteriorly.
Malar length, maximum
XML Illa
Total direct length of the malar in a diagonal direction,
from the lower end of the zygo-temporal suture on the lateral face of the
bone, to zygoorbitale, the junction of the zygo-maxillary suture
with the lower border of the orbit, on the /eft side.
With the skull resting on the right side of the occiput and the left frontal region facing the observer, place the fixed point of the calipers at the zygotemporal point (Woo's ZT) and measure to zygoorbitale. Fix the screw. Use the right side if necessary.
Synonym:
Woo Chord of the minimum horizontal
arc C
Recent attempts to measure the shape of the malar and
the suborbital fossa are:
Ducros A. and J. 1967. Relations de I'os
zygomatique. Bull. et Mém. De la Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris, ser.12,
vol. 1: 367-376.
Rideau, Y. 1968. Étude anthropométrique
de la fosse sous-orbitaire. Bull. et Mém. De la Soc. d’Anthrop.
de Paris, ser. 12, vol. 3: 317-329.
Malar subtense
MLS IIIa
The maximum subtense from the convexity of the malar
angle to the maximum length of the bone, at the level ol the zygomaticofacial
foramen, on the left side.
With the caliper in position for maximum malar length, lower the coordinate arm to the most prominent point in the horizontal profile of the malar approximately at the level of the small foramen below the external angle of the orbit (foramen zygomaticofaciale), i.e., without tiling the caliper down to maximize the reading. Use the right side the left is damaged.
Synonym:
Woo Maximum subtense of minimum horizontal
arc S
Cheek height
WMH IIa
The minimum distance, in any direction, from the lower
border of the orbit to the lower margin of the maxilla, mesial to the masseter
attachment, on the left side.
Measure with the skull face up, placing the caliper so as to find the minimum in any direction, and being sure to measure with the tips of the points, not their shanks, so as not to displace the axis of measurement. Use the right side if the left is damaged.
Note:
This differs from Martin's "Wangenbeinhöhe”, 48(4),
which specifies measurement in a vertical direction.
Supraorbital projection
SOS IIIa
The maximum pro jection ot the left supraorbital
arch between the midline, in the region of glabella or
above, and the frontal bone just anterior to the temporal line in its forward
part, measured as a subtense to the line defined.
With the skull resting on the right side of the occiput and the left frontal region facing the observer, place the point of the fixed arm on the frontal surface next to the incurvature of the temporal line, and the movable point in the midline near glabella, lowering the coordinate arm to find the highest reading anywhere in the supraorbital area. The lateral points are not specific, but are moved around slightly (keeping the right point in the midline) to maximize the reading. Read to the nearest whole millimeter. Use the right side if the left is damaged.
Notes:
1. Because of the indefinite
landmarks used, reading to 1/10 mm is not justified. This appears
to be a coarse method for a small measurement, but the results are consistent.
If the measure is viewed as an improvement on visual grading, its objectivity
and its availability for numerical treatment will be obvious.
2. As a measure of supraorbital
development alone it is imperfect, because it also reflects the horizontal
convexity of the frontal bone itself. Thus, females with virtually
no supraorbital arches will give values of 4 or 5 mm.
Glabella projection
GLS IIId
The maximum projection of the midline profile between
nasion and supraglabellare (or the point at which the convex profile of
the frontal bone changes to join the prominence of the glabellar region),
measured as a subtense.
Rest the skull on the right occiput, left side to the observer so that the lower frontal region is in full profile. Set one caliper arm at nasion (not in a cleft of the suture), and move the coordinate arm to a position at the most prominent point in the midline profile and the other lateral arm on the frontal at the lowest point above any part of the glabellar eminence. Read the coordinate arm to the nearest whole millimeter.
Notes:
1. Note # 1 under supraorbital projection applies fully
here, although the landmarks are more precise in this case.
2. If the frontal bone descends convexly into the glabellar
eminence without a break, the right lateral arm should be placed a sensible
distance away from the glabellar eminence, i.e., something over 1 cm.
Variations in this placement make very little difference in the measurement
obtained.
3. No attempt is made here to define a point "glabella,"
measuring simply being done from the most prominent point in the profile.
Foramen magnum length
FOL IIb
The length from basion to opisthion, as defined.
Measure with the skull base up, using the inside calipers for simplicity, not in order to take an inside measurement.
Notes:
1. The main purpose of this measurement is to complete
the outline of the skull, otherwise covered by other measurements.
2. This differs from M Länge des Foramen magnum,
7, because of the different location of basion.
Nasion-bregma chord (Frontal chord)
FRC Illa
The frontal chord, or direct distance from nasion to
bregma, taken in the midplane and at the external surface.
Rest the skull approximately on the right asterion so as to get a good left profile view of the frontal region. Place the points at bregma and nasion as defined, and set the screw.
Synonyms:
M Mediansagittale Frontalsehne
29
B Chord nasion
to bregma
S1'
HW Frontal chord
42 (p. 55)
Woo, J-K. Frontal chord
(N to B)
Notes:
1. Do not let the points sink into a sutural cleft which
may be present at either end point-this is a measure of the external outline
of the skull. If necessary, displace the caliper point slightly to a spot
on the surface at an equivalent position - wanderings of the
coronal and sagittal suture usually permit such a spot
to be found.
2. This measures the essential contribution of the frontal
bone to the sagittal section of the vault. Consequently, the placing of
nasion and bregma must reflect the general posítion of the sutures,
and not follow minor and very local deviations of these.
Nasion-bregma subtense (Frontal subtense)
FRS Illa
The maximum subtense, at the highest point on the convexity
of the frontal bone in the midplane, to the nasion-bregma chord.
With the caliper in position for nasion-bregma chord,
move the coordinate point back and forth several times in the sagittal
plane, to find a tangent to the curve of the frontal bone at its highest
point. Settle the caliper arm here, set the screw, and read.
Synonyms:
HW Frontal perpendicular
51 (p. 58)
Woo, J-K. Frontal subtense
(ab)
Nasion-subtense fraction
FRF IIIa
The distance along the nasion-bregma chord, recorded
from nasion, at which the nasion-bregma, or frontal, subtense falls.
Following the reading of the two previous measurements, this is read from the caliper at the appropriate scale (position of the coordinate arm on the main measuring bar).
Notes:
1. This reading makes possible the computation of the
frontal angle, by dividing the chord into two parts at the subtense and
thus forming two right triangles of which two sides are known.
2. While the subtense, or height of the frontal curve,
can easily be read precisely, its exact location along the chord is often
hard to find satisfactorily when the curve is a gentle one, and two readings
may differ considerably. This can hardly affect the value of the angle
to be computed to a significant extent.
Bregma-lambda chord (Parietal chord) PAC
IIIa
The external chord, or direct distance
from bregma to lambda, taken in the midplane and at the external surface.
Proceed as for nasion-bregma chord, shifting the position of the skull.
Synonyms:
M Mediansagittale Parietalsehne
30
B Chord bregma to lambda
S2'
HW Parietal chord
43 (p. 55)
Notes: See notes under nasion-bregma chord.
Bregma-lambda subtense (Parietal subtense) PAS
IIIa
The maximum subtense, at the highest point on the convexity
of the parietal bones in the midplane, to the bregma-lambda chord.
Proceed as for nasion-bregma subtense, with the
caliper in position for bregma-lambda chord. Note, however, that there
is a suture to contend with, and do not let the point sink into a cavity
created by this.
Synonym:
HW Parietal perpendicular
52 (p. 58)
Note:
In many populations there is a slight depression along
the middle course of the sagittal suture. The maximum curvature of the
parietals in the midplane is accordingly not as great as that slightly
lateral to it, which will be the curvature seen in a full profile view.
This will be reflected in the measured subtense and derived angle, as compared
with what might be derived from a photograph or X-ray.
Bregma-subtense fraction
PAF IIIa
The distance along the bregma-lambda chord, recorded
from bregma, at which the bregmalambda, or parietal, subtense falls.
Proceed as for nasion-subtense fraction.
Notes: See notes under nasion-subtense fraction.
Lambda-opisthion chord (Occipital chord) OCC
IIIa
The external occipital chord, or direct distance from
lambda to opisthion taken in the midplane and at the external surface.
Proceed as for nasion-bregma chord, shifting the position of the skull. The movable point must be placed firmly against the posterior border of the foramen magnum and then held in place with the right thumb.
Synonyms:
M Mediansagittale Occipitalsehne
31
B Chord lambda to opisthion
S3'
HW Occipital chord
44 (pp. 55, 58)
Notes: See notes under nasion-bregma chord.
Lambda-opisthion subtense (Occipital subtense) OCS
IIIa
The maximum subtense, at the most prominent point on
the basic contour of the occipital bone in the midplane.
Proceed as for nasion-bregma subtense, with the caliper
in position for lambda-opisthion chord.
Synonym:
HW Occipital perpendicular
53 (p. 58)
Note:
If there ís a moderately
well-developed but rounded nuchal crest forming part of the general
contour and profile of the bone, this should be included if the subtense
falls here. If, however, a central elevation or the inion stands
out prominently, this should be discounted by placing the point in
the notch directly above thc midline downward
curve of inion and crest. This is most likely to be at the level
of the actual apex of curvature of the bone itself, and level with the
highest point of the curved lines or the torus on either side. In any case
the proper point for the subtense - the apex of curvature - is likely
to be above the inion, either in this depression or higher.
This is a deliberate but perhaps not entirely satisfactory
step to keep a local development here from giving a highly dislocated rendering
of the actual angulation of the occipital bone. Often, however, the maximum
subtense reading lies well above even a prominent inion, and the problem
arises in only a few populations anyhow.
Lambda-subtense fraction
OCF IIIa
The distance along the lambda-opisthion chord, recorded
from lambda, at which the lambda-op-isthion, or occipital, subtense falls.
Proceed as for nasion-subtense fraction.
Notes: See notes under Nasion-subtense fraction.
See note under Lambda-opisthion subtense.
Vertex radius
VRR IIIb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from the most
distant point on the parietals (including bregma or lambda), wherever found.
With the skull resting on the lower occiput, face to the observer, insert the plugs of the radiometer gently and simultaneously into the meatus on either side, until they are snugly in place without forcing. Move the coordinate arm back and forth sagittally, but not necessarily in the midline, to find the maximum reading.
Notes:
1. The term "radius" in these measurements implies "radius
from the transmeatal axis," as found by the radiometer, IIIb, or
a similar instrument. This instrument will find no other series of radii,
nor does it seem likely that any other such set of radii from a transverse
axis can be measured directly on the skull. See Martin, p. 669.
2. The coordinate arm reads only to 135 mm. In the occasional
case where the measurement is greater, read the excess, along the coordinate
arm, from this point to the actual measurement with the inside calipers,
IIc, and add to 135.
Nasion radius
NAR Illb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis trom nasion.
With the skull face up, insert the ear plugs in the meatus, as for vertex radius, and measure to nasion.
Note:
For the radii to the face, the skull should be repositioned
and the plugs reinserted after vertex radius, as a safety measure.
Subspinale radius
SSR IIIb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from subspinale.
Proceed as for nasion radius.
Note:
Subspinale, as with bimaxillary subtense, is a
profile point, not to be measured in
a sutural fissure.
Prosthion radius
PRR Illb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from prosthion.
Proceed as for nasion radius.
Notes: See notes #2 and #3 under basion-prosthion length.
Dacryon radius
DKR Illb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from the left
dacryon.
Proceed as for nasion radius, measuring to the left dacryon.
Note:
If the left dacryon, or any point involved in the next
five measurements, is in such shape that a better reading may be had on
the right side for all points, shift to that side for the entire series.
It is more important to preserve the relative degrees of projection of
each point among the set on one side than to get the left measurement when
it is available.
Zygoorbitable radius ZOR
Illb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from the left
zygoorbitale.
Proceed as for nasion radius.
Note: See note under dacryon radius.
Frontomalare radius
FMR Illb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from the lett
frontomalare anterior.
Proceed as for nasion radius.
Note: See note under dacryon radius.
Ectoconchion radius
EKR Illb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from the left
ectoconchion.
Proceed as for nasion radius.
Note: See note under dacryon radius.
Ziygomaxillare radius
ZMR Illb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from he left
zygomaxillare anterior.
Proceed as for nasion radius.
Molar alveolus radius
AVR Illb
The perpendicular to the transmeatal axis from the most
anterior point on the alveolus of the left first molar.
Proceed as for nasion radius.
Notes:
1. See note under dacryon radius.
2. This is an attempt to relate the molar row to the
facial projection generally. If there is resorption or damage to the alveolar
border, an estimate of its original extent must be made. Where most
teeth are missing, be certain that the correct alveous is being used by
counting from the midline.
3. Because measurement to the right side
is especially difficult, this measurement should be given extra weight
in deciding whether or not to shift to the right side where damage makes
some estimation necessary on either side.
Angles:
Angular measures, of the face, base, and vaultn in the
sagittal plane, and horizontal angles involving various parts of the face,
make good descriptive traits, and in addition appear from previous work
(Howells 1966; Crichton 1966) to be valuable on multivariate analysis.
Angles, except for the survey of Woo and Morant (1934)
and some sporadic attempts at their development at the turn of the century,
have appeared very little in western literature.
Figures have consisted very largely of angles relating the facial or nasal
profile to the Frankfort horizontal, using a goniometer; it is likely that
the generally accepted necessity of drawing triangles and using a protractor
for reading has inhibited the use of other angles which cannot be read
instrumentally.
Russian workers, having highly
"mongoloid" peoples within their ethnographic province, have used indices,
and to a lesser extent angles, fairly extensively studies of facial flatness.
Such workers include Abinder, Debets, Bunak, and Tsui. My ability
to survey this literature is unfortunately
almost nil linguistically. I was aware of some of the work, e.g.,
by Debets, and defined the angles used herein, and the
measurements to derive them, on the basis of this, of Woo and
Morant, and experience of my own. Later Professor Ginzburg pointed
out to me some of the recent leading articles in Russian. These show
prior use of a considerable number of facial measures and angles, including
some similar to almost all of those drawn up by me, particularly the dacryal
and naso-dacryal, the former of which I supposed I had "invented"
in 1961 (Howells 1966). The principal
difference may be that my measurements
use anterior points, i.e., those which would be seen as most
anterior in lateral profile, at frontomalare and at ectoconchion,
rather than frontomalare orbitale. Russian usage has
already replaced the traditional zygomaxillare (the lowermost
point of the suture, cf. Martin 1928; Woo and Morant 1934)
by the anterior point, and I am not certain that the same usage does
not usually extend to frontomalare as well. At any rate, I think
it likely that workers in the Atlantic sphere are more ignorant of work
by Russians than vice versa.
I should also refer again to the coordinate caliper
IIIc, (herein dubbed "simometer"), since
I know of none commercially available which will take small measurements
in both axes. I had this constructed along the lines of that
used by the Russians, on information given me by G. F. Debets
and I. I. Gochman. The Russian model is illustrated in AD, p. 23,
and is simply designated "coordinate caliper."
Nasion angle (Basion-prosthion)
NAA
Of the tacial triangle, the angle at nasion, whose sides
are basion-nasion and nasion-prosthion.
Computed from the three sides of the triangle,basion-nasion
length, basion-prosthion length, and nasion-prosthion
height. (See "Computation of Angles" below.)
Synonym:
»B Nasial (sometimes "nasal") angle
N <
Notes:
1. The "facial triangle" (=B "fundamental triangle")
or Gesichtsdreieck, is universally recognized as involving
the three points, nasion, prosthion, and basion, in spite of a tendency
to disagree on definitions of these points, and another tendency
to use two different points for
both
2. The Biometric definition of
this and the prosthion and basion angles is based on the use
of the alveolar point, not the prosthion
defined herein, and so the angles involved are not precisely equivalent
in the two cases.
3. The triangle lies in the sagittal plane of the skull.
It, and the angles involved, have no relation to the Frankfort horizontal.
Prosthion angle (basion-nasion)
PRA
Of the facial triangle, the angle at prosthion, whose
sides are basion-prosthion and nasion-prosthion.
Computed from basion-nasion, basion-prosthion, and nasion-prosthion.
Synonyms:
M Winkel des Gesichtsdreiecks
72 (5)
»B Alveolar angle
A<
Note:
As noted under nasion angle, this is not related to Martin's
72, Ganzprofilwinkel (=B P<), which is the angle formed at prosthion
by nasion-prosthion and a parallel to the Frankfort horizontal.
Basion angle (nasion-prosthion)
BAA
Of the facial triangle, the angle at basion, whose sides
are basion-nasion and basion-prosthion.
Computed from basion-nasion, basion-prosthion, and nasion-prosthion.
Synonym:
»B Basal angle
B <
Nasion angle (basion-bregma)
NBA
The angle at nasion whose sides are basion-nasion and
nasion-bregma (the opposite side being basion-bregma).
Computed from basion-nasion length, basion-bregma height,
and nasion-bregma chord.
Note:
This angle is computed as one possibly registering lowness
of the frontal and bending of the cranial base generally.
Basion angle (nasion-bregma)
BBA
The angle at basion whose sides are basion-nasion and
basion-bregma (the opposite side being nasion-bregma chord).
Computed from the three sides named.
Note:
This is computed as a possible measure of lowness and
length of the frontal bone having some independence of direct measures
of the bone and its angulation.
Zygomaxillary angle
SSA
The angle at subspinale whose two sides reach from this
point to zygomaxillare anterior left and right.
Computed from bimaxillary breadth and zygomaxillary subtense.
(See "Computation of Angles" below.)
Synonym:
AD Zygo-maxillary angle
Notes:
1. This measures facial flatness at subspinale relative
to the bimaxillary diameter: the higher the angle, the flatter the maxillary
region in this respect.
2. The angle is loosely related to the “premaxillary
index of facial flatness," (4b) of Woo and Morant (1934; see also
Coon 1962). It differs in the measurements involved, which by Woo and Morant
were taken from zygomaxillare inferior, and to prosthion rather than to
subspinale. Other-wise the index is generally correlated (negatively) with
the angle, since the index is a ratio corresponding to the cotangent of
half the angle (Alekseev and Debets give a table for the conversion). The
difference lies in changing the information into an actual shape
in the case of the angle.
Nasio-frontal angle
NFA
The angle at nasion whose two sides reach from this point
to frontomalare, left and right.
Computed from bifrontal chord and nasion subtense.
Synonyms:
»M Querprofil des Obergesichts
»AD Naso-malar angle
Notes:
1. This measures the facial flatness at nasion relative
to the most anterior points on the external angular processes of the frontal:
the higher the angle the less the forward protrusion of the supranasal
point of the frontal relative to its external angles. It is entirely a
measure of the frontal bone; it is thus more an index of transverse frontal
flatness than facial flatness (see below).
Martin's angle is measured from frontomalare vitale,
not anterior. His angle is drafted from same measurements made by Woo and
Morgan, 1: IOW (=M 43(1)) and 1a, Sub IOW; and ir 1b, "index of facial
flatness," or 100 Sub W/IOW, is thus exactly correlated with Martin's;
single. (see under zygomaxillary angle).
Alekseev and Debets equate the Russian omalar angle with
Martin's 77 and the WM measurements, deriving the angle by trigonometry
by a nomogram which they furnish. However, ad the opportunity to check
the measurements this angle and zygomaxillary with Professor zburg,
and found our practice was the same; may be therefore that Russian practice,
if in uniform, is actually to use frontomalare anterior, which would make
the angle identical with at defined above, not with Martin's.
Dacryal angle DKA
The angle formed at dacryon by the orbital adth
from ectoconchion and the subtense from ryon to biorbital breadth; right
and left angles ed.
Computed from orbital breadth and dacryon tense - see
"Computation of Angles." The le as computed is doubled, to
form an angle though the two orbital breadths, on either side at a single
dacryon point without the interation of the interorbital breadth. This
is done more direct comparability with the other angles facial flatness,
which have this character.
Notes:
The angle relates the position of dacryon the apex of
the lacrimal fossa) to the lateral tal borders: the higher the angle,
the more essed the inner margin of the orbit relative to outer margins.
It is an attempt to measure the tive sweeping back of the orbital margins
relato the midface.
This is the same as the "Dacryon Angle,” surement #24,
in Howells 1966, except that last angle was placed at ectoconchion er than
at dacryon, decreasing with increased al flatness. A similar angle is illustrated
by ak 1960, p. 128, although his angle is mead from frontomalare orbitale.
o-dacryal angle NDA
The angle formed at the midline of the nasal es, whose
sides reach from this point to dan, left and right.
The midpoint is the lowest one in the nasal profile with
relation to the dacrya, as found in the measuring of interorbital
breadth and naso-dacryal subtense, from which the angle is computed.
Notes:
1. The angle is meant to measure the relative positions
of the roof of the nose and the plane of the eyes, insofar as the latter
is reflected in the position of the lacrimal fossa.
2. A similar angle is illustrated in Bunak 1960,
page 128, although the apex shown is nasion rather than a point
lower down on the nasal bones.
Simotic angle SIA
The angle at the midline of the nasal bones, at their
narrowest point, whose sides reach to the end points of the minimum breadth
of the nasal bones.
Computed from the simotic chord and subtense. The last
may actually be negative (i.e., the transverse profile of the bones may
be concave). In such cases the subtense has been recorded as 0.1 mm, the
angle thus being virtually 180o, to avoid, complications in multivariate
computation. In some other cases the nasal bones may end superiorly in
an apex which does not reach the frontal bone, so that all measurements
would technically be zero. In such cases measurements have been made
lower down (see under simotic chord) where they may truthfully convey the
form of the nasal development in this region.
Notes:
1. This measures the actual pitch of the nasalia themselves:
the higher the angle the flatter the nasal bones.
2. The angle is precisely related with the "simotic index,"
2b (100 SS/SC) of Woo and Morant, since the same measurements are
used in its computation: the index, or ratio of the subtense to the transverse
chord, is in fact double the cotangent of half the angle.
Frontal angle
FRA
In the sagittal plane, the angle underlying the curvature
of the frontal bone at its maximum
height above the frontal chord.
Computed from nasion-bregma chord, nasion-bregma subtense,
and nasion-subtense fraction.
Synonyms:
M Krummungswinkel des Stirnbeins 32(5)
Woo, J-K. Frontal curvature angle
(b)
Note:
This is the apex of a triangle whose base is the nasion-bregma
chord, placed where the angle is least (i.e., where the curvature, measured
by the subtense to the chord, is greatest). The higher the angle, the flatter
the bone in external profile.
Parietal angle
PAA
In the sagittal plane, the angle underlying the curvature
of the parietal bones along the sagittal suture, at its maximum height
above the parietal chord.
Computed from bregma-lambda chord, bregma-lambda subtense,
and bregma-subtense fraction.
Notes:
1. Comparable to the frontal angle, this is the apex
of a triangle whose base is the bregma-lambda chord,
placed where the subtense to the chord is greatest.
2. Klaatsch (1909) diagrammed a
number of possible angles and triangles of the sagittal section of
the skull. This particular angle is the only one corresponding to one of
his (unnamed).
Occipital angle
OCA
In the sagittal plane, the angle underlying the
curvature ot the occipital bone at its maximum height above the occipital
chord.
Computed from lambda-opisthion
chord, lambda-opisthion subtense, and lambda subtense fraction.
Notes:
1. As with the frontal angle, this is the apex of
a triangle whose base is the
lambda-opisthion chord, placed where the subtense to the chord is
greatest. As set forth under definitions of the
relevant measurements, the attempt is to follow the general contour
of the bone to find this point, while avoiding a particularly prominent
inion. The most prominent point on the curve may or may not be at
the nuchal crest.
2. The angle is therefore not the same as M 33
(4), Occipitaler Knickungswinkel, which is
placed at inion, as are other angles defined in
the literature generally.
COMPUTATION OF ANGLES
Angles derived from direct measurements of the skull and
face (i.e., not measured with a craniophor and goniometer)
may be found by several methods, of which the last
two below have been used in this study.
1. Hand calculation, with a calculator
and a table of trigonometric functions. This has been used
or recommended at various times, e.g., Debets 1951; Trevor 1958.
2. Diagramming on paper in order to read the angle with
a protractor. This, like # 1, is laborious and also inexact.
3. A trigonometer, as devised by Pearson (see Fawcett
1902) for reading angles from three known sides of a triangle.
4. A nomogram or a prepared table, to read the value
of an angle from the values of the measurements involved (see AD, pp. 53,
54; also Howells 1966). Table 44 is given below
as an example, useful for certain facial angles. However, these
tables are restricted as to the range of measurements covered
and are essentially limited,
unless very voluminous (though they can be computer-produced), to the use
of two measurements only.
5. A computer program for the automatic production and
punching of all required angles for large numbers of specimens. Such
a program, in FORTRAN IV, was written for me by Tom Jones of the Statistical
Applications Unit of the Harvard Computing Center, and could
be modified for any other such study. As finally run on the
IBM 7094, to print and punch 13 angles on 1,927 specimens, this
required 2.2 minutes of computer time.
6. For single angles or specimens (but rapid enough for
fairly long runs of data), use of any laboratory computer or console connection
with a major computer which will store the
simple program called for, and has access to stored trigonometric functions
for execution. This recourse was used in the present study, to introduce
some new data and to make corrections in the main body. Such arrangements
and computer languages vary so in time and place that details are not worth
giving here.
The angles already defined fall into four classes according
to the combinations of measurements needed to produce them, namely:
1. Angles like those, of the facial triangle, determined
by three measurements constituing the sides of the triangle. The basic
formula is:
cos A = (C2+D2 – E2)/2cd
and the geometric figure involved is
 |
The three measurements C, D, and E are fed to the computer,
which returns all three angles in the order shown. The obvious case is C=basion-nasion, D=basion-prosthion, and E=nasion-prosthion, returning the angles at nasion, prosthion, and basion. |
tan (½A) = ½ F/G (=F/2G)
The geometric figure involved is
 |
tan A’ = L/K
tan A” = (J-L)/K
A=A’ + A”
The geometric figure involved is
 |
The obvious example is J = nasion-bregma chord,
K = nasion-bregma subtense, and L = nasion-subtense fraction. These are of course fed directly to the computer and the whole angle returned. |
4. The special case of dacryal angle, which measures the foward projection of dacryon from the biorbital breadth, to produce na angle comparable to the other angles of facial flatness, but which does not use the homologous measurements, or sides of the triangle. Instead, it uses one side of the right triangle (dacryon subtense), N, and the hypotenuse (orbit breadth) M. The basic formula is:
sin B = N/M; A = 180 – 2B
The geometric figure involved is
 |
From table 44, facing, there may be read
directly angles of class 2 above, e.g., zygomaxillary angle, from the transverse measures and the subtenses concerned. |
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abinder, N. A. l960. Transversalnaya uploshchennostilitzevogo
skeleta. Antropologicheskii Sbornik II, Trudi Instituta
Etnograii, L: 153-178.
Benington, R. C. 1912. A
study of the Negro skull with special
reference to the Congo and Gaboon crania. Biometrika, 8: 292-337.
Bunak, V. V. 1960. Litzevoi skelet
i faktori opredel-yaiuschü variatzü
evo stroyeniya. Antropolo-gicheskü Sbornik
II, Trudi Instituta Etnografü, L: 84-152
Coon, C. S. 1962. The Origin of Races. 724
pp., New York: Knopf.
Debets, G. F. 1951. Trudi Siviro-vostochnoi Expeditzü,
I. Antropologicheskii isledovaniya i Kamchatskoi
oblasti. Trudi Instituta Etnografü, n.s. XVII, 263 pp.
________.1959. The skeletal remains of the Ipiutak
cemetery. Acts, 33rd Congress of Americanists,
San Juan 1958, vol. 2 pp. 57-64.
Fawcett, ,C. D. 1902. A second study of the variation
and correlation of the human skull, with
special reference to the Naqada crania. Biometrika,
1: 408-467.
Howells, W. W. 1937. The designation of the principal
anthropometric landmarks on the head and skull. Am. /. Phys. Anthrop.,
XXII: 477-494.
________. 1966. The Jomon population of Japan.
A study by discriminant analysis of Japanese
and Ainu crania. Papers of the Peabody Museum,
Harvard University, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 1-43.
Klaatsch, H. 1909. Kraniomorphologie und Kraniotrigo-nometrie.
Archiv für Anthropologie, 36 (n.s. 8): 101-123.
Landauer, C. A. 1962. A factor
analysis of the facial skeleton. Human Biology, 34: 239-253.
Macdonell, W. R. l904. A study of the variation and correlation
of the human skull, with special reference to English crania.
Biometrika, 3: 191-244.
de Mérejkowsky, C. 1882. Sur un
nouveau caractere anthropologique. Bull. de la Soc. d'Antrop. de Paris,
series 3, vol. 5: 293-304.
Morant, G. M. 1927. A study of the Australizn and
Tasmanian skulls, based on previously, published measurements. Biometrika,
19: 419-440.
________.1928. A preliminary classification of
European races based on cranial measurements. Biometrika, 20B: 301-375.
________.1937. A contribution to Eskimo craniology based
on previously published measurements. Biometrika, 29: 1-20.
Mukherjee, R., C. R. Rao, and J. C. Trevor 1955.
The ancient inhabitants ol Jebel Moya (Sudan) Cambridge University
Press.
Pearson, K. 1934. On simometers and their
handling. Biometrika, 20: 265-268.
Pearson, K. and A. G. Davin
1924. On the biometric constants of the human skull. Biometrika.16: 328-
363.
Piquet, M.-M. 1954. L'indice orbitaire et I'appréciatìon
de la largeur de I'orbite; essai de standardisation.Bull. et Mém.
de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris. series 10, vol. 5: 100-112.
Thomson, G.1951. The factorial analysis of human ability.
5th ed. 383 pp., Boston: Houghton Miffilin.
Von Török, A. 1890. Grundzüge
einer systematischen Kraniornetrie. 631 pp. Stuttgart: Ferdinand
Enke.
Trevor, J. C. l958. Quantitative traits of the
U.S. Negro cranium. The Leech, 28: 131-138.
Tsui, Chen-Yao 1962. The morphological
analysis of some skeletal elements of the upper part of the face
in relation to its flatness. Voprosy Antropologii, Moscow University, no.
9: 88-99.
Woo, J.-K. 1949. Racial and sexual differences
in the frontal curvature and its relation to metopism. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop.,
7: 215-226.
86 151 149 146 144 142 139
137 135 132 130 128 126 124 122 120 118 116 114 112 110
152
149 147 144 142 140 137 1 5 133
131 128 126 124 122 120 118 116 114 113 111
152
149 147 145 142 140 138 136 133 131 129 127 125 123 121 119 117 115 113
111
152
150 147 145 143 140 138 136 134 132 129 127 125 123 121 119 118 116 114
112
153
150 148 145 143 141 139 136 134 132 130 128 126 124 122 120 118 116 114
113
91 153 150 148 146 144 141 139 137 135
133 130 129 126 124 122 121 119 117 115 113
153 151 148
146 144 142 139 137 135 133 131 129 127 125 123 121 119 117 116 114
153 151 149
146 144 142 140 138 136 133 131 129 127 125 123 122 120 118 116 114
154 151 149
147 145 142 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 124 122 120 118 117 115
154 152 149
147 145 143 141 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 124 123 121 119 117 115
96 154 152 150 147 145 143 141 139 137
135 133 131 129 127 125 123 121 119 118 116
154 152 150
148 146 143 141 139 137 135 133 131 129 127 125 124 122 120 118 117
155 152 150
148 146 144 142 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 124 122 121 119 117
155 153 151
148 146 144 142 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 125 123 121 119 118
155 153 151
149 147 145 142 140 138 136 134 133 131 129 127 125 123 122 120 118
101 155 153 151 149 147 145 143 141 139 137
135 133 131 129 127 126 124 122 120 119
156 154 151
149 147 145 143 141 139 137 135 133 131 130 128 126 124 122 121 119
156 154 152
150 148 145 143 141 139 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 125 123 121 120
156 154 152
150 148 146 144 142 140 138 136 134 132 130 129 127 125 123 122 120
156 154 152
150 148 146 144 142 140 138 136 135 133 131 129 127 126 124 122 121
106 157 154 152 150 148 146 144 142 141 139
137 135 133 131 129 128 126 124 123 121
157 155 153
151 149 147 145 143 141 139 137 135 133 132 130 128 126 125 123 121
157 155 153
151 149 147 145 143 141 139 137 136 134 132 130 129 127 125 124 122
157 155 153
151 149 147 145 143 142 140 138 136 134 132 131 129 127 126 124 122
NOTA: Na coluna 18, na
segunda linha, marcou-se em vermelho o número 1 5 .
Este número não
corresponde com os demais. Foi conferido no original e está
falhado
igual como está aqui,
falta um número. Tudo indica que o número correto é
135,
Medidas tomadas diretamente
GOL (gabello-occipital length) GLS (glabella
projection)
NOL (nasio-occipital length) FOL (foramen
magnum length)
BNL (basion-nasion length) FRC (frontal cord)
BBH (basion-bregma height) FRS (frontal subtense)
XCB (maximum cranial breadth) FRF (nasion-subtense
fraction)
XFB (maximum frontal breadth) PAC (parietal
cord)
STB (bistephanic breadth) PAS (parietal subtense)
ZYB (bizygomatic breadth) PAF (bregma-subtense
fraction)
AUB (biauricular breadth) OCC (occipital
cord)
WCB (minimum cranial breadth) OCS (occipital
subtense)
ASB (biasterionic breadth) OCF (lambda-subtense
fraction)
BPL (basion-prosthion length) VRR (vertex
radius)
NPH (nasion-prosthion height) NAR (nasion
radius)
NLH (nasal height) SSR (subspinale radius)
OBH (orbit height, left) PRR (prosthion radius)
OBB (orbit breadth, left) DKR (dacryon radius)
JUB (bijugal breadth) ZOR (zygoorbitale radius)
NLB (nasal breadth) FMR (frontomalare radius)
MAB (palate breadth, external) EKR (ectoconchion
radius)
MDH (mastoid height) ZMR (zygomaxillare radius)
MDB (mastoid breadth) AVR (molar alveolus
radius)
ZMB (bimaxillary breadth) BRR (bregma radius)
SSS (zygomaxillary subtense) LAR (lambda
radius)
FMB (bifrontal breadth) OSR (opisthion radius)
NAS (nasio-frontal subtense) BAR (basion
radius)
EKB (biorbital breadth)
DKS (dacryon subtense)
DKB (inteorbital breadth)
NDS (naso-dacryal subtense)
WNB (simotic cord)
SIS (simotic subtense)
IML (malar length, inferior)
XML (malar lengh, maximum)
MLS (malar subtense)
WMH (cheek height)
SOS (supraorbital projection)
Medidas calculadas
NAA (nasion angle, basion-prosthion)
PRA (prosthion angle, basion-nasion)
BAA (basion angle, nasion-prosthion)
NBA (nasion angle, basion-bregma)
BBA (basion angle, nasion bregma)
SSA (zygomaxillary angle)
NFA (nasio-frontal angle)
DKA (dacryal angle)
NDA (naso-dacryal angle)
SIA (simotic angle)
FRA (frontal angle)
PAA (parietal angle)
OCA (occipital angle)
Obs:
nalisado por: ____________________________________________________
Data: ____ / ____/ ____